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¡¡¡¡Main Characteristics of U.S. banking supervision¡¡

¡¡¡¡1. Strict concession of entry into banking ¡¡

¡¡¡¡ The first step of bank supervision procedure in U.S. is banking concession. Federal government requires banks to get particular grant for entry into banking business. To be granted the concession, there are usually two measures: firstly, from federal government, submit application to OCC according to National Banking Act . Secondly, apply to state governments according to state banking regulations. No matter from which measure the application is granted, the regulatory requirements for entry into banking are: adequacy of capital structure, $ 1 million as minimum; applicant should submit clear business plan; illuminating the bank¡¯s capability to meet customers¡¯ need of commercial and credit services and to keep earning benefits; reputable board of directors. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡ The factors considered in charter application are: a. bank¡¯s future earning prospects; b. general character of management; c. $1 million capital sufficiency; d. convenience and needs of community to be served; financial history and condition of bank; compliance with National Banking Act. Denial of application cannot easily be overturned in courts. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡2. Thorough and prudent regulation & capital adequacy ratios ¡¡

¡¡¡¡For many years, U.S. prudent supervisory regulations, mostly came out aiming at excessive risk, false pretences and internal dealings in banking. In order to secure banks¡¯ steadiness, many laws and supervisory regulations have been established to restrict banks¡¯ risky actions in providing loans, investment and other deals. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡In U.S., the scope covers broadly related to making and implementing prudent policy, including capital adequacy ratio, bad debts reserve, assets concentricity, liquidity, risk management and internal control and so on. A good case in point, capital adequacy ratio standard which is based on risks plays a significant role in U.S. banking supervision. The purpose of making the prudent policy is neither to manage banks from the microcosmic angle, nor to eliminate risks purely, but that to control the risks by banks¡¯ management. As Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act of 1991 (FDICIA) requires the FDIC to use the method least costly to the insurance fund when merging insolvent banks into healthy ones. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡It allowed the FDIC to borrow directly from the Treasury department and mandated that the FDIC resolve failed banks using the least-costly method available. It also ordered the FDIC to assess insurance premiums according to risk and created new capital requirements. Once supervisory agencies notice capital falls down below the minimum standard, then will examine the bank on a much stricter standard. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡3. Effective onsite examination ¡¡

¡¡¡¡Bank supervision in the United States exemplifies the formal approach to supervision that requires an active, on-site presence to verify conditions existing within banks. In the U.S. model, periodic onsite examinations have been the cornerstone of the supervisory process. The American approach is justified by the large number of small banks and on unit banking within particular states, both of which result from restrictions on geographic expansion.¡¡

¡¡¡¡Unlike countries where the authorities rely on outside experts, bank supervisors in the United States must themselves possess the skills to evaluate asset quality and other areas of a bank's activities. A major disadvantage of this approach is that it can be labor intensive and can be inhibited by budgetary constraints. U.S. supervisory agencies have responded to resource constraints in recent years by targeting on-site examinations, making greater use of off-site surveillance and early warning analysis, and taking advantage of advances in computer technology. These steps have permitted the supervisory agencies to hold the number of examining staff relatively constant despite the growth in assets and growing complexity of the financial system.¡¡

¡¡¡¡The more than 14,000 banks supervised by U.S. regulators is a major reason that a formal approach to supervision has been required. It also explains the adoption of the CAMEL rating system and the use of the Uniform Bank Performance Report. The CAMEL rating quantifies a supervised institution's condition in five critical areas and assigns an overall composite rating. This report compares and ranks each bank against its peers. There are twenty-five peer groups, bringing together institutions with similar characteristics. These reports are publicly available and the computer tapes are made available to stock analysts and others, while the Uniform Bank Performance Report (UBPR) is a statistical analysis of bank performance that is based on data from quarterly prudential reports. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡a. Safety/ Soundness CAMELS¡¡

¡¡¡¡Two major focuses of banking supervision and regulation are the safety and soundness of financial institutions and compliance with consumer protection laws. To measure the safety and soundness of a bank, an examiner performs an on-site examination review of the bank's performance based on its management and financial condition, and its compliance with regulations.¡¡

¡¡¡¡The examiner uses the CAMELS rating system to help measure the safety and soundness of a bank. Each letter stands for one of the six components of a bank¡¯s condition: Capital adequacy, Asset quality, Management, Earnings, Liquidity and Sensitivity to market risk. When performing an examination to determine a bank's CAMELS rating, instead of reviewing every detail, the examiner evaluates the overall financial health of the bank and the ability of the bank to manage risk. A simple definition of risk is the bank's ability to collect from borrowers and meet the claims of its depositors. A bank that successfully manages risk has clear and concise written policies. It also has internal controls, such as separation of duties. For example, a bank¡¯s management will assign one person to make loans and another person to collect loan payments.¡¡

¡¡¡¡b. Safety/ Soundness ¡°5-Cs¡±¡¡

¡¡¡¡A safety and soundness examiner also reviews a bank¡¯s lending activity by rating the quality of a sample of loans made by the bank. When a bank reviews a loan application, it uses the "5-Cs" to assess the quality of the applicant. The 5-Cs stand for: capacity, collateral, condition, capital and character.¡¡

¡¡¡¡1) Capacity. Measures the borrower¡¯s ability to pay, including the borrower¡¯s payment source, such as a job or profits from a business, and amount of income relative to amount of debt. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡2) Collateral. What are the bank¡¯s options if the loan is not paid? What asset can be turned over to the bank, what is its market value, and can it be sold easily? Available asset might be a house or a car. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡3) Condition. This refers to the borrower¡¯s circumstances. For example, if a furniture storeowner was asking for a loan, the banker would be interested in how many chairs and sofas the store is expected to sell in the area over the next five years. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡4) Capital. The applicant¡¯s assets (house/ car/ savings) minus liabilities (home mortgage, credit card balance) represent capital. If liabilities outweigh assets, the borrower might have difficulty repaying a loan if his regular source of income unexpectedly decreases. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡5) Character. Measures the borrower¡¯s willingness to pay, including the borrower¡¯s payment history, credit report and information from other lenders. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡Every time a bank makes a loan, the bank is at some risk that it will not get paid back. A majority of most banks¡¯ assets are in loans; therefore, a loss of loans could hurt a bank¡¯s financial condition. After an examiner assesses the quality of a loan made by a bank, the loan is assigned one of the following ratings: Pass, Substandard, Doubtful or Loss. Pass, the best rating, is a loan that favorably meets the conditions set out in all of the 5-Cs. Loss, the worst rating, is a loan that has significant concerns relating to the 5-Cs and has a history of late payments. When a loan is classified Loss, the examiner does not expect the bank to get paid back.¡¡

¡¡¡¡When a problem is found within a particular area of a bank, examiners offer recommendations for improvement; however, penalties can be assessed for significant noncompliance.¡¡

¡¡¡¡Over the long run, bank supervisors can use the on-site examinations process as a catalyst for changing the fundamental ways in which banks operate by recommending actions for financial institutions to upgrade their operations. This usually involves the strengthening of management systems in banks, including written policies and procedures, formalized planning and budgeting, internal controls and audit procedures, management information, and loan review.¡¡

¡¡¡¡4. Offsite supervision and credit information¡¡

¡¡¡¡The advent of the ¡°information age¡± has brought a new bank supervision technique: offsite bank surveillance systems for the collection and interpretation of regular reporting returns and other statistical data. A critical component is effective offsite supervisory capacity. Offsite monitoring systems complement examinations¡¯ focus on the bank¡¯s current condition, e.g. credit, income, and capital, and are designed to accomplish a number of objectives. Foremost, they serve as an ¡°early warning device¡± to detect emerging bank financial problems. At a more aggregate level, offsite surveillance systems employed by regulatory authorities can monitor the financial condition and the performance of the entire banking system. The aggregate data offer evidence on the condition of the banking system-and show changes or shifts that might require prompt adjustments in overall bank monetary or supervisory policy. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡The offsite surveillance in the U.S. and analysis can serve as illustration of the process. Offsite analysis precedes onsite examinations and inspections. This offsite system is used as well in evaluating application filed for mergers and acquisitions. The regulatory agencies prepare a Uniform Bank Performance Report (UBPR), which is an analytical tool created for offsite surveillance and monitoring. Examiners can use this report to further their understanding of a bank¡¯s financial condition and go on to identify risk areas. Bank examiners uninterruptedly run after banks¡¯ financial conditions, to find out potential problems in good season. To the problem banks, offsite examiners will implemented particular surveillance, make a very detailed supervisory plan, including requiring banks to increase the frequency of reporting, closely tracking banks¡¯ outstanding achievements and financial conditions and helping banks to frame the remodeling measures. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡The success of an offsite system hinges on several elements. First, the accuracy and timeliness of the data submitted by banks. Second, the technology used to capture the data and compile the comparative ratios, trend analyses and percentile ranks relative to peers. Finally, the analyst makes a judgment based on a variety of financial ratios and trends, and combines the findings to offer compelling evidence of a specific bank¡¯s financial condition. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡Regulation and supervision are one element of the institutional infrastructure for sound banking. In many developing countries, the capacity to evaluate credit risk is hampered by the absence of audited Financial Statements that meet International Auditing Standards. Further, credit markets in developing countries suffer from lack of credit discipline. Poor credit performance is attributable not only to adverse economic conditions, but also to the lack of credit discipline in the system. Many banks, foreign and domestic, involved as creditors had limited knowledge of borrowers¡¯ total loans or total number of creditors. The benefits of transparency are evident and the role of Credit Information Systems essential. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡5. Comprehensive credit auditing¡¡

¡¡¡¡First of all, to thoroughly examine banks¡¯ formal loan policies and the situation how director of management implements them. Next, to evaluate the quality of every single loan provided. The steadiness of loan operation plays an important role in the soundness of the whole banking system. U.S. accounting and auditing standards are central to the integrity of its financial system. They are also important to the Federal Reserve¡¯s efforts to supervise and regulate banking organizations. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) standards and proposals affecting banks have been issued at a blistering pace in such areas as loan-loss accounting, asset securitization, mortgage servicing, securities activities, and derivatives. Bankers and examiners have felt the impact of these accounting developments and have seen business strategies and transaction types change as a result. ¡¡

¡¡¡¡The Federal Reserve recognizes that accounting, auditing, and disclosure play a crucial role in the financial marketplace. Accounting standards provide the foundation for credible financial statements and other disclosures that are key means for communicating a firm's operating results and its overall health, as well as for making more transparent various operating activities. Disclosure of reliable information facilitates market discipline, strengthens confidence, and reduces the chance that misleading information could cause market instability. Such results have obvious implications for supervisors' abilities to oversee the safety and soundness of depository institutions and for the Federal Reserve in its responsibilities for financial market stability.¡¡

¡¡¡¡6. Consumer protection¡¡

¡¡¡¡Customers deposit money in a bank, and then the bank makes loans with these deposits to qualified borrowers. Whether a customer deposits money in a bank or applies for a loan, there is a lot of information to consider. For instance, let¡¯s say you deposit money into a savings account at a local bank. What minimum balances are you required to keep? Also, are you charged a penalty if your account falls below the minimum amount? When you apply for a loan for a used car, do you know if the interest rate is allowed to vary, or is it fixed for the life of the loan? If it is allowed to vary and interest rates go up, the total amount of interest you owe will increase.¡¡

¡¡¡¡Banks are required to provide customers clear and accurate information about services, such as savings accounts, loans and credit cards. For example, a bank¡¯s brochure for a savings account should include information on any minimum balance required, monthly service fee and the average percentage yield. In addition, the Truth in Lending Act requires banks to disclose the finance charge and the annual percentage rate so that a consumer can compare the prices of credit from different sources. It also limits liability on lost or stolen credit cards. These laws ensure that consumers and banks make decisions based on the same information.¡¡

¡¡¡¡If consumers have a complaint about a financial institution they can contact the Federal Reserve. Together with the twelve Federal Reserve Banks, the Board of Governors can answer questions about banking practices and investigate complaints about specific banks under its supervisory jurisdiction.¡¡

¡¡¡¡7. Community Reinvestment ¡¡